Measuring Concentration of Natural Gas in Air

Measuring Concentration of Natural Gas in Air Valentin Haemmerli Measuring concentration of natural gas in air using a catalytic bead sensor and a Wheatstone bridge circuit Abstract. A vacuum system and a catalytic bead combustible gas sensor were used to calibrate and test an apparatus for measuring the concentration of natural gas in air. Total concentrations ranged between 0%-5% and total pressure from 0.5 bar to 1.5 bar. A Wheatstone bridge circuit was used to measure the output voltage of the sensors and relate this to concentration over the range of pressures. The linear relationship between reaction rate (given by initial rate of change of output voltage) and concentration was most strongly observed at pressures of 1 bar and above. The constant of proportionality for the equation (1) was found to be 8.7  ±0.4 10-4 Vs-1 per % methane for a total system pressure of 1 bar. The relationship broke down for pressures significantly below 1 bar, indicating that the sensors are not reliable in this range. Introduction Catalytic bead sensors, also known as pellistors [1], are used in a wide range of applications in industry to monitor levels of combustible gases. One such combustible gas is the mixture consisting mainly of methane referred to as natural gas. The catalytic bead sensors can be used to monitor the concentration of natural gas in production facilities, coal mines and industrial processes. This is important because if the concentration of natural gas in air exceeds 5% it becomes explosive [2]. It is especially important to monitor methane concentration because it is usually colourless and odourless [3], making it very difficult to detect without sensors. An apparatus to measure concentration of natural gas in air can be used to trigger an alarm when there is a concentration greater than the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL), given as a percentage. At this concentration the mixture of gas and air becomes explosive. The apparatus may need to be applied for different pressure environments, not only atmospheric pressure, for example in applications with chemical processes requiring lower or higher pressures. The apparatus has therefore been tested for a range of pressures from 0.5 -1.5 bar. Theory Sensors The sensors used are catalytic bead sensors. One sensor is made up of two elements, one sensitive and one non-sensitive. The sensors work by catalysing the oxidation reaction of combustible hydrocarbons in the sensitive element which consists of a platinum wire coated in a compound which facilitates the oxidation reaction and also contains the catalyst for this reaction. The non-sensitive element is identical in most regards, but crucially is missing the oxidizing chemical or has had it poisoned, depending on the specific sensor design used. Poisoning means that the catalyst has been reacted with another chemical to make it inert. The non-sensitive element does not react with combustible gases. The elements are supplied with 3V, and heated up to 400-500ËÅ ¡C to speed up the reaction. When the oxidation reaction of combustible gases occurs on the sensitive element, the heat of reaction increases the temperature of the element, which changes the resistance in the platinum wire. Th e non-sensitive element acts as a control for ambient temperature, meaning that in the absence of any combustible gas, the two elements will output exactly the same voltage. This is very useful as it means that change in temperature due to external factors is controlled and the difference in output between the sensitive and non-sensitive elements can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit as described below. This design means that these sensors detect a multitude of different combustible gases and are therefore not useful for distinguishing between them, meaning they are nonspecific [4]. However, they are very useful for situations where monitoring combustibility is of importance, and they can be applied readily to the task of measuring concentration as they are accurate and have a fast response time. The sensors used are sensitive, with a measurement range of 0-100% of the LEL. This corresponds to 0-5% concentration of methane. One downside of these sensors is that they cannot operate in a vacuum as they rely on combustion, which usually requires at least 15% oxygen [4]. They are also at risk of poisoning since they rely on a coat of catalyst and the presence of certain chemicals can result in a reaction with this catalyst, meaning the sensitive element would no longer facilitate the oxidation reaction and the difference in output between the elements would always be zero. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Jeong-Yeol Yoon states that â€Å"A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure a very small change in resistance† [5]. A circuit as shown in Figure 1 can be used to measure the output from the sensors, where a small resistance change is expected as a result of the sensitive element heating up due to the presence and reaction of combustible gases. A voltage is supplied at the top and bottom of the diamond of resistors, and the voltage across the middle, between V1 and V2 is measured. The right leg of the bridge should have a large resistance compared to the other leg so that a small change can be detected. The variable resistor allows one to slightly vary the resistance on one leg and so balance the bridge before measurements, zeroing the output. Experimental Method The first step was to test how sensor output related to concentration for a total pressure of 1bar (atmospheric). Care was taken to ensure that all joints and seals of the vacuum system were tight and that all valves were firmly closed. The vacuum system used to prepare test mixtures is shown in Figure 2. P1 and P2, the pressure sensors shown in the figure, were used to measure concentration of natural gas and air. P1 had a range of 3 bar, with the zero set to atmospheric pressure (1bar), and vacuum (0bar) set to -1. This was not very precise, with an uncertainty of  ±0.1bar and was used to fill up the system with compressed air and the pressure shown by this corresponded to total pressure. P2 was a more precise pressure sensor, ranging from 0 to 50 mbar with uncertainty  ±0.5mbar. It was used to carefully add the correct proportion of natural gas to the vacuum, before topping up with compressed air. Using this vacuum system, concentrations ranging from 0-5% natural gas were prepared. Figure 2 also shows the position of the pellistor sensor’s two elements and the connection to the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The output of this circuit was connected to a ÃŽ ¼V meter which was connected to a computer for dat a logging. This had a range of -30.00 to 30.00mV with uncertainty  ±0.01mV. Data logging was carried out for 5 minutes and 30s for concentrations of 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% at a total pressure of 1 bar. Errors were reduced by zeroing the Wheatstone bridge output using the variable resistor between measurements. This was done to reduce the effect of a natural drift in the output due to very slightly varying conditions in the lab such as temperature and the resistance in the circuit, as well as mechanical vibrations. The bridge circuit supply voltage was kept at a constant 3.00V. Care was taken to leave little time between sealing the system under vacuum and filling with natural gas and air as the seals were not perfect and pressure rose slowly, but noticeably if the system was left at vacuum for an extended period. This procedure was then repeated for a suitable range of concentrations at total pressures of 0.5, 0.75, 1.25, and 1.5 bar. The same considerations were made for reducing error as above. One thing to note is that at total pressures of less than atmospheric there was always a slight influx of outside air, due to the imperfect seals, however the effect of this was negligible. Experimental Results To find a correlation between the concentration of methane and the bridge output voltage we took the gradient of the initial increasing linear section of the raw data. Figure 3 below shows this for the case with concentration 5% of methane with a total pressure of 1 bar. As can be seen, the measured data falls away as reactant, the natural gas, is used up in the reaction. Figure 3 also shows that there is a very sharp spike as the output voltage varied greatly when the sensor was first switched on. This illustrates that care was needed when selecting which section of the curve to use to calculate the gradient. This is the right method to use to find concentration because, according to Hammett, â€Å"the rate of any chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the substances actually involved in the reaction.† [7] and the gradient of Figure 3 is a rate of reaction. The next step was to establish the gradients, or initial reaction rates, of 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% methane mixtures. These are shown in Figure 4, along with 5%, for a total pressure of 1 bar. Figure 5 shows these gradients again, but all in order and passing through the origin to better show the steady increase in gradient. Figure 6 shows processed data for 1 bar total pressure. The gradients of the lines from Figures 4 and 5 are plotted against their concentration. This allows us to find a constant linking the raw data to the concentration for this pressure. Table 1 goes on to show the values of this constant for the other pressures analysed. The raw data for these is not shown here, but the process and data is similar to that for 1 bar. Figure 7 shows the relation between the pressure and the concentration. Also included are a second order polynomial and a linear trend line (fitted by least squares). Vertical error bars are from standard error in Table 1 and horizontal error bars from  ±0.1bar uncertainty in total pressure. Discussion Figure 6 shows the gradients of the lines in Figures 4 and 5, meaning the rates of reactions at different concentrations, plotted against the concentration of methane. This gives us a relationship between concentration and the initial rate of reaction, the quantity derived from the raw data, for a specific total pressure. For 1 bar this was 8.7 ±0.4 10-4 Vs-1 per % methane. The error in this comes from a combination of the uncertainty in the pressure measurement leading to uncertainty in concentration corresponding to  ±0.1% in the worst case and a small random error in the output voltage of the bridge circuit corresponding to  ±2Ãâ€"10-4V. Figure 7 includes both a polynomial fit and a linear fit. It is unclear if the relationship remains linear or takes some other form at low pressure. The polynomial is almost linear for the three higher pressures, which indicates a strong relationship between pressure and reaction rate for higher pressures. The values and their associated errors in Table 1 come from each plot of initial reaction rate (rate of change of voltage) against concentration for the different pressures. The error is the standard error for these plots. There was a breakdown of the relationship at low pressures. Data for 0.5 bar total pressure was not included in the results because no clear relationship between output and concentration was found. This indicates that the sensors are not suitable for low pressures, especially when coupled with low concentrations. This resulted in very little output from the sensors, making it difficult to reliably determine an initial reaction rate, which is vital for obtaining a relationship between the raw data and the concentration. The reason for this lack of output was that not enough natural gas particles were interacting with the sensitive element to cause it to heat up and also due to a lower oxygen concentration also slowing down the reaction. This is not a problem in the commercial applications of these types of sensors as they are typically used to detect high concentrations of combustible gases at atmospheric pressure. This does highlight a weakness in the apparatus when used for finding unknown concentrations, however. Another weakness was the inability to measure large pressures precisely, leading to large errors in the total pressure measurements. This has an increased effect on low pressures, which is a further reason for the less reliable data. Empirical Relationship If we give the initial rate of reaction a constant,, and a function of pressure, , then (2) where is the concentration of methane, is determined experimentally from the sensor data and is the polynomial relationship from Figure 7, (3) with the appropriate total pressure, found experimentally from the pressure sensors on the vacuum system, substituted. Using this equation it is possible to use the sensors to determine the concentration of an unknown mixture. Conclusions The aim was to build an apparatus capable of determining the concentration of natural gas in air up to 5%. In order to do this it was necessary to first establish the relationship between sensor output and concentration. This was then repeated at different pressures to understand the effect of a different pressure on the relationship between sensor output and concentration. Finally it was possible to use these relationships to determine the concentration of an unknown mixture of gas and air. The constant of proportionality for 1 bar pressure was found to be 8.7 ±0.4 10-4 Vs-1 per % methane. For 0.75 bar it was found to be 6.5 ±1.6 10-4 Vs-1 per % methane, 1.25 bar was 16.2 ±0.8 10-4 Vs-1 per % methane, and 1.5 bar was 25.3 ±1.9 10-4 Vs-1 per % methane. No correlation was found between sensor output and concentration for 0.5 bar. Appendix Division of labour among group members: Giuseppe Guarino –main tasks were constructing bridge circuit on protoboard and constructing and soldering strip board circuit which was finally used in data collection David Griggs –main tasks were configuring CassyLab software and importing raw data into Microsoft Excel Valentin Haemmerli –main tasks were preparing mixtures of natural gas and compressed air in vacuum system and researching sensor operation guidelines Shared responsibilities –everyone shared the tasks of checking the circuit, building the vacuum system apparatus and preliminary data analysis. References [1]Operating Combustible Gas Sensors, ed: Sixth Sense (sensor manufacturer). [2]Material Safety Data Sheet: Methane, ed: Air Products, 1999. [3]J. G. Speight, CHAPTER 1: History and Uses, in Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook, ed: Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC / Gulf Publishing Company, 2007, pp. 1-33. [4]L. T. White, 4 Hazardous Gas Monitoring Sensors, in Hazardous Gas Monitoring (Fifth Edition), L. T. White, Ed., ed Norwich, NY: William Andrew Publishing, 2001, pp. 81-116. [5]J.-Y. Yoon, Wheatstone Bridge, in Introduction to Biosensors, ed: Springer New York, 2013, pp. 75-86. [6]Catalytic Elements CAT16, ed: Sixth Sense (sensor manufacturer). [7]L. P. Hammett, Physical organic chemistry reaction rates, equilibria, and mechanisms. New York; St. Louis; San Francisco [etc.]: McGraw-Hill, 1970.

Loss of Faith in Night by Elie Wiesel :: essays research papers

Eliezer Wiesel loses his faith in god, family and humanity through the experiences he has from the Nazi concentration camp. Eliezer loses faith in god. He struggles physically and mentally for life and no longer believes there is a god. "Never shall I forget those moments which murdered my god and my soul and turned my dreams to dust..."(pg 32). Elie worked hard to save himself and asks god many times to help him and take him out of his misery. "Why should I bless his name? The eternal, lord of the universe, the all-powerful and terrible was silent..."(pg 31). Eliezer is confused, because he does not know why the Germans would kill his face, and does not know why god could let such a thing happen. "I did not deny god's existence, but I doubted his absolute justice..."(pg 42). These conditions gave him confidence, and courage to live. Eliezer loses faith in his family. He and his mother and sister were parted at the camp and he has no hope to see them ever again. "Men to the left! Women to the right..."(pg 27). His father is getting old, and weak, and Elie realizes his father does not have the strength to survive on his own, and it is too late to save him. "It's too late to save your old father, I said to myself..."(pg 105). He felt guilty because he could not help his father, but he knew the only way to live is to watch out for himself. "Here, every man has to fight for himself and not think of anyone else. Even of his father..."(pg 105). He thinks of himself, and Eliezer loses hope, trust, and his beliefs. He begins to rely on himself because he knew that only he can help himself and he could not depend on anyone else. "Never shall I forget those flames which consumed my faith forever..."(pg 32). Elie's father was struck, and that was when he realized he was afraid of death, and he felt guilty because he did not help his father.

Juliet Character study Essay

Juliet is 13 going on 14 on the first of August. Juliet is a Capulet, and Capulets hate Montegues. Juliet lives with her parents, Lord and Lady Capulet and is cared for by her Nurse, all of whom are very protective of her. Capulet explains to Paris â€Å"My Child is yet a stranger in the world. † Act 1 Sc2 l8. Juliet is of a high status, mainly because of her family name. Juliet’s parents are extremely protective of her, they will not let her out of the house with out the nurse or one of the servants with her, this is because she is an only child † Earth hath swallowed all my hopes but she. † Act1 Sc2 L14. It was common in the time the play was set for Juliet to be already married, Lady Capulet comments about this near the beginning of the play, she comments on how she was married and had Juliet when Lady Capulet was Juliet’s age. From Act 1 Scene 5 it is evident that Juliet has never flirted before, because she is too forward, this is shown when she kisses Romeo, but she does show signs of hiding her feelings in the same scene, Juliet tells the Nurse to ask for peoples names who are at the ball and comes to Romeo last to try and make it not look too obvious. I have also learnt from Act 2 scene 2 that she is very practical, when she Romeo climbs up to her balcony she says â€Å"If they do see thee, they will murder thee. † Act2 Scene2 L70. Juliet is also very honest about how she feels and gets offended when Romeo says that he loves her and he swears by the moon. Act2 Sc2 L107-111. Juliet is also very certain of things and asks Romeo to marry her and she asks him to do all the arrangements Act 2 Sc2 L142-170. During the Play, Romeo has always tried the art of Poetry with women to get them to take to his fancy. Act1 Sc1 L165-176. Juliet doesn’t like this Act2 Sc6 L30-34, but Juliet does say that her love for Romeo has grown so much that it doesn’t even add up to half her wealth. Juliet doesn’t like her love to be sworn on things she just wants love to be shown. Act2 Sc2 L107-116. The factor in the play I find very peculiar is Juliet’s awareness that her love with Romeo is some how unethical there love actually is. In Act3 Scene5 Ln54-57 Juliet is saying that in the future she can see herself looking down into Romeo’s grave. This is ironic because this does actually happen When the play first started I thought that Juliet was a good little girl and seemed to be very obedient, towards both parents, because when Lady Capulet asks Juliet if she’ll marry Paris she says that if she likes Paris then she shall marry him, but I won’t involve myself any further without you consent. Act1 Sc3 L97-99. When Juliet started to change character Act3 Sc5 to me it seemed very unusual, before this scene she seemed very obedient, but then she just stopped, I do understand why though, she was already to married to Romeo and didn’t want to betray him by marrying County Paris. This shows despite all the things she has been through Juliet still stays Loyal to Romeo. The effect this had on Juliet’s relationship with her parents was catastrophic, her parents wanted to disown her, from her heritage â€Å"Hang thee young baggage, disobedient wretch! † Act3 Sc5 Ln160. Juliet’s parents were very unfair, cursing her, saying that they didn’t want anything to do with her any more, through out their speeches. An attribute I like about Juliet is her cunning, in they way that when after this scene, when she visits Friar Laurence and then returns to her home, her Father asks her where she has been and she says she has been to confession and told Friar Laurence that she has repented for being disobedient. Act4 Sc2 Ln16-22. I think this is very ingenious, Juliet tells her Father that she had been to confesion when really she has been plotting to fake her own death. In Act3 Scene5 when Juliet is talking to her mother, she shows her cunning yet again, the way she uses a play on words to makes her mother think she is cursing Romeo when really. Act3 Sc5 Ln93-102. This also shows that Juliet is very intelligent by using these play on words. Juliet is fond of the Nurse who is always there with Juliet. Act1 Sc 3 L8-9. This is because the Nurse brought Juliet up just like a mother would. The Nurse was employed buy Lord and Lady Capulet as a Wet Nurse, this is because Ladies of Lady Capulet’s high status would never damage there bodies by breast feeding there child, and also it would disrupt her routine with having to wake up at all hours in the night to look after a baby. The Nurse did have a daughter, Susan, the same age as Juliet but unfortunately she died at an early age. There is no particular reason why the Nurse is still employed it is just the fact that Juliet has become attached to her and the fact that she can be used as a chaperone. The Nurse is like Juliet’s best friend and her go between with Romeo, Juliet tells the Nurse everything. In Act 2 Scene 5 Juliet goes through a range of emotions. Juliet finds the Nurse extremely frustrating and the Nurse is teasing Juliet, which provokes this, but Juliet uses her shrewdness to get what she wants in the end, the answer if Romeo will marry her. To me this shows their friendly relationship. At the end of Act3 Scene5 the Nurse betrays Juliet in a way, she doesn’t help Juliet when she really needs it and tells her to marry Paris and to forget about Romeo. Juliet reacted to this very badly, she curses the Nurse for abandoning her, and she says that’s she will leave to go to Friar Lawrence’s cell and if that fails then she will commit suicide. Juliet is an exceptionally strong character for her age, seeming she was kept away from outside life for years. Juliet stood up to her parents for what she believed was correct and disobeyed them, by not marrying Paris. Juliet was extremely brave when she faked her own death, although she was scared of numerous problems that she might face if the potion didn’t work. Juliet was scared that the Potion would kill her, that she would wake up and die of suffocation or she will wake up and Romeo will not be there and she would have to stay in the Crypt until he came. All she wanted to do is be with Romeo. In my own opinion I think Juliet has a great and exciting personality. She seems to me remarkably intelligent, emotionally strong, and very brave. From what Romeo has told us she looks beautiful Act1 Sc5 Ln41-50 and the fact that Paris fell in love with her straight away and died for her also means she looked very beautiful as well. I personally would have loved to meet her or to have a friendly conversation with her about her love with Romeo. My own attitude is if Juliet had never met Romeo I would think that she would have stayed obedient, because the fact that she would have been pressured by her family to marry Paris, I know that she wouldn’t be happy, because she said earlier in Act1 Scene3 that she would â€Å"Look to like if liking move, but no more deep will I endart mine eye than your consent gives strength to make it fly† If she did marry Paris it would have been really depressing for her and she wouldn’t feel anything for him. In my own opinion Juliet would become boring, she would just stay the same, and wouldn’t have strength in character. She would have lived the stereotypical life of a rich Veronese woman of high status, but even if she did live this life she would have lived a lot longer than if she had married Romeo.

Philosophy Reflection Paper - 2173 Words

PHIL 102 Introduction to Philosophy was the first philosophy class I have ever taken. Before this class I had no idea what the study of philosophy truly was, even after this class I am still a little unclear. This class brought on a whole new way of thinking that I was not use to. This class challenged me to grasp even the simplest of concepts that we learned. So right now to say I am philosophically inclined would be false, but I think over time and more classes I could have a better understanding of the topic. It is hard for me to say whether I am clear or not in my philosophical positions because I am still struggling to understand even the basic ones, so how can you have a clear idea of something when you don’t understand it? In this†¦show more content†¦Thomas Aquinas. The teleological is an argument from design, that the universe was designed by an intelligent creator and one of St. Thomas Aquinas’s five proofs for the existence of God. The two main premi ses for this argument is that the universe is complex and within it contains many things that exhibit signs of purpose and design, and that the only thing that could have caused these complexities that we see in the universe comes from an intelligent mind which would lead to an intelligent creator. One of the reasons I believe this argument to be true is the state of Alaska, just looking out of my window it is hard to believe that something other than an intelligent creator designed everything out there. This argument often compares the human eye to that of a watch. A watchmaker is an intelligent designer who puts thought and effort into every single piece of the watch, as an intelligent designer put thought and effort into the human eye. One of the arguments we covered that challenged by belief the most during the philosophy of religion was the problem of evil. The problem of evil is an argument for the non-existence of God. 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